Primary sources of information are those that provide first-hand accounts of the events, practices, or conditions you are researching. In general, these are documents that were created by the witnesses or first recorders of these events at about the time they occurred, and include diaries, letters, reports, photographs, creative works, financial records, memos, and newspaper articles (to name just a few types). Primary sources also include first-hand accounts that were documented later, such as autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories.
Magna Carta 1215
King John’s barons forced him to grant Magna Carta, the great charter of liberties that placed the English king under the law, at Runnymede Meadow in 1215. It is a crucial document for democracy and formed the basis of modern law and American jurisprudence with its attempt to impose limitations on a ruler:
No free man shall be taken or imprisoned, or dispossessed or outlawed or exiled or in any way ruined, nor will we go or send against him except by the lawful judgement of his peers or by the law of the land.
The reign of King John was in all ways unlikely and dreadful. He was born in 1166, the youngest of Henry II’s five sons. His ascension to the throne was so implausible that he was not named after a king and suffered both the indignity of the possibility that he may have been named after his sister Joan and the certain fate of having proved so unredeemable a ruler that no king of England has ever taken his name since. He was spiteful, and he was weak. In any case, the worst king of England is best remembered for an act of capitulation. In 1215, King John pledged to his barons that he would obey “the law of the land” when he affixed his seal to a charter that came to be called Magna Carta. He then promptly asked the Pope to nullify the agreement and the Pope obliged. John died not long afterward of dysentery. “Hell itself is made fouler by the presence of John,” it was said. Magna Carta is now more than 800 years old, and King John is more than eight hundred years dead. Few men have been less mourned, few legal documents more adored.
Mayflower Compact 1620
The Mayflower Compact, was signed on the English ship Mayflower on November 21, 1620, prior to its landing at Plymouth, Massachusetts. It was the first framework of government written and enacted in the territory that is now the United States of America.
Rough seas and storms prevented the Mayflower from reaching its intended destination in the area of the Hudson River, and the ship was steered instead toward Cape Cod. Because of the change of course, the passengers were no longer within the jurisdiction of the charter granted to them in England by the Virginia Company. Within this legally uncertain situation, friction arose between the English Separatists (the Pilgrims) and the rest of the travelers, with some of the latter threatening to leave the group and settle on their own.
To quell the conflict and preserve unity, Pilgrim leaders (among them William Bradford and William Brewster) drafted the Mayflower Compact before going ashore. The brief document (about 200 words) bound its signers into a body politic for the purpose of forming a government and pledged them to abide by any laws and regulations that would later be established “for the general good of the colony.” The compact was signed by nearly all of the Mayflower’s adult male passengers while the ship was anchored at Provincetown harbor. Its authority was immediately exercised when John Carver, who had helped organize the expedition, was chosen as governor of the new Massachusetts Bay colony.
Declaration of Independence 1776
The Declaration of Independence is the founding document of the American political tradition. It articulates the fundamental ideas that form the American nation: All men are created free and equal and possess the same inherent, natural rights. Legitimate governments must ,therefore, be based on the consent of the governed and must exist “to secure these rights.”
As a practical matter, the Declaration of Independence announced to the world the unanimous decision of the thirteen American colonies to separate themselves from Great Britain. But its true revolutionary significance—then as well as now—is the declaration of a new basis of political legitimacy in the sovereignty of the people. The Americans’ final appeal was not to any man-made decree or evolving spirit but to rights inherently possessed by all men. These rights are found in eternal “Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God.” As such, the Declaration’s meaning transcends the particulars of time and circumstances.
The Declaration has three parts—1) the Preamble, 2) a list of charges against King George III, and 3) a conclusion. The Preamble summarizes the fundamental principles of American self-government. The list of charges against the king presents examples of the violation of those principles. The stirring conclusion calls for duty, action, and sacrifice.
The Constitution and Bill of Rights
The U.S. Constitution was written and signed on September 17, 1787, by men who craved independence from Britain but who were nonetheless steeped in its history and ideals. The Constitution starts with some basic precepts of English governance, but then adds some uniquely American twists — three branches of government that act to check and balance each other, for example. Although much thought went into the Constitution, the Framers left it open to amendment. Some of the signers felt the need to spell out the rights of individual citizens in contrast to the establishment of the powers of the federal government enumerated in the Constitution itself. Thus, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the Bill of Rights, were ratified as a group on December 15, 1791. The 38 signers of the Constitution and Bill of Rights were delegates from the original states.
I Have a Dream, Martin Luther King
In his iconic speech at the Lincoln Memorial for the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Martin Luther King urged America to "make real the promises of democracy." King synthesized portions of his earlier speeches to capture both the necessity for change and the potential for hope in American society. Click on the Learn More button below to see the original text of Dr. King’s famous address.
The Federalist Papers
There is perhaps no better antidote to the politics of passion than the practical wisdom found in The Federalist Papers, a model of statesmanship and a primer on political liberty. What Publius (a pen name for Hamilton, Madison, and Jay) writes in the opening paragraph of the first paper remains true today:
"It has been frequently remarked, that it seems to have been reserved to the people of this country to decide, by their conduct and example, the important question, whether societies of men are really capable or not, of establishing good government from reflection and choice, or whether they are forever destined to depend, for their political constitutions, on accident and force."
How does Publius propose to deal with this problem? First, he proposes to give citizens self-knowledge about the dangers of passion in politics. Indeed, the use of the impersonal pseudonym is itself an attempt to preserve reason against passion by placing the emphasis on the arguments rather than the persons. Publius warns his readers of the “torrent of angry and malignant passions” that will be let loose by public deliberation, and he urges them to beware the “numerous” and “powerful” causes in human nature that “serve to give a false bias to judgment.”
Gettysburg Address
In the summer of 1863, General Robert E. Lee pushed northward into Pennsylvania. The Union army met him at Gettysburg, and from July 1 to July 3, the bloodiest battle of the war ensued. By the time it was over, the Confederates were in retreat, and the battlefield was strewn with more than 50,000 dead and wounded.
Four months later, thousands gathered at Gettysburg to witness the dedication of a new cemetery. President Abraham Lincoln was the second speaker on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery at Gettysburg. Lincoln was preceded on the podium by the famed orator Edward Everett, who spoke to the crowd for two hours. Lincoln followed with his now immortal Gettysburg Address. On November 20, Everett wrote to Lincoln:
“Permit me also to express my great admiration of the thoughts expressed by you, with such eloquent simplicity & appropriateness, at the consecration of the Cemetery. I should be glad, if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes.”
Common sense
Thomas Paine was born in England in 1737 and worked as a corset maker in his teens and later as a sailor and schoolteacher before becoming a prominent pamphleteer. In 1774, Paine arrived in Philadelphia and soon came to support American independence. Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense in January of 1776 setting forth his arguments in favor of American independence.
Although little used today, pamphlets were an important medium for the spread of ideas in the 16th through 19th centuries. Originally published anonymously, Common Sense advocated independence for the American colonies from Britain and is considered one of the most influential pamphlets in American history. Credited with uniting average citizens and political leaders behind the idea of independence, Common Sense sold some 500,000 copies, powerfully influencing American opinion and playing a remarkable role in transforming a colonial squabble into the American Revolution.
Isabella's Charter to Columbus
The face that launched three ships, Isabella I was queen of Castile and León when she married Ferdinand II of Aragon, which brought about the political unification of what is now modern day Spain. She is best known for sponsoring Columbus' voyage to the Americas, and for her role in "purifying" the Roman Catholic faith through the Spanish Inquisition.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus convinced Isabella to sponsor his voyage of exploration. The lasting effects of this were many: by the traditions of the time, since Columbus was the first European to encounter lands in the New World, the lands were given to Castile which resulted in Spain's overseas empire and Spanish domination of Europe for the next century. It also resulted in the Christianization of the peoples of Latin America and the use of Spanish as the lingua franca by millions.
Isabella was also a patron of scholars and artists, establishing educational institutions and building a large collection of art works. She learned Latin as an adult, was widely read, and educated not only her sons but her daughters as well. The youngest of these daughters, Catherine of Aragon was the first wife of Henry VIII of England.
Treaty of paris 1783
The 1783 Treaty of Paris, negotiated between the United States and Great Britain, ended the revolutionary war and recognized American independence. The Continental Congress named a five-member commission to negotiate a treaty–John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, and Henry Laurens. Among the team’s notable achievements were British recognition of American independence, the securing of American fishermen’s right of access to the Grand Banks off the coast of Newfoundland and other traditional fisheries in Canadian waters, and Great Britain’s ceding to the United States all territory between the Allegheny Mountains on the east and the Mississippi River on the west, thereby doubling the size of the new nation. For its part, the United States agreed to use its powers to end the persecution of Loyalists by state and local governments and to restore their property confiscated during the war. Both countries agreed not to block creditors from seeking to recover debts owed to them.
The preliminary articles of peace were signed by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens for the United States and Richard Oswald for Great Britain on November 30, 1782. The final treaty was signed on September 3, 1783, and ratified by the Continental Congress early in 1784.
united nations charter 1945
The Charter of the United Nations is the foundational treaty of the United Nations (UN), an intergovernmental organization. The charter was signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center on June 26, 1945, by 50 of the 51 original member countries. The UN was the second multipurpose international organization established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and membership. Its predecessor, the League of Nations, was created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and disbanded in 1946. Headquartered in New York, NY, the UN also has regional offices in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi.
In addition to maintaining international peace and security, the UN's other important objectives include developing friendly relations among countries based on respect for the principles of equal rights and self-determination of peoples; achieving worldwide cooperation to solve international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems; respecting and promoting human rights; and serving as a center where countries can coordinate their actions and activities toward these objectives.
dred scott decision - march 6, 1857
Dred Scott was an African-American slave. He was taken by his master, an officer in the U.S. Army, from the slave state of Missouri to the free state of Illinois and then to the free territory of Wisconsin. He lived on free soil for a long period of time. When the Army ordered his master to go back to Missouri, he took Scott with him back to that slave state, where his master died. In 1846, Scott was helped by Abolitionist lawyers to sue for his freedom in court, claiming he should be free since he had lived on free soil for a long time. The case went all the way to the United States Supreme Court. Chief Justice, Roger B. Taney, a former slave owner from Maryland, wrote in his majority opinion:
“...it is the judgment of this court, that it appears by the record before us that the plaintiff in error is not a citizen of Missouri, in the sense in which that word is used in the Constitution; and that the Circuit Court of the United States, for that reason, had no jurisdiction in the case, and could give no judgment in it. Its judgment for the defendant must, consequently, be reversed, and a mandate issued, directing the suit to be dismissed for want of jurisdiction.”
Scott lost the decision as seven out of nine Justices on the Supreme Court declared no slave or descendant of a slave could be a U.S. citizen, or ever had been a U.S. citizen. As a non-citizen, the court stated, Scott had no rights and could not sue in a Federal Court and must remain a slave. The ruling served to turn back the clock concerning the rights of African-Americans, ignoring the fact that black men in five of the original States had been full voting citizens dating back to the Declaration of Independence in 1776. So the next time someone tells you the Supreme Court should be “strict constructionists” in their interpretation of the Constitution, point them to Dred Scott.
sinners in the hands of an angry god
Jonathan Edwards' famous sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was preached on July 8, 1741, in Enfield, Connecticut. It is an appeal to 'sinners' to recognize that they will be judged by God and that this judgment will be more fearful and painful than they can comprehend. Edwards pulls no punches when it comes to condemning the sinfulness of human beings. Those who belong in the unrepentant category may be those who are outwardly wicked and reject God, or they might be people who are just complacent. Three themes stand out as particularly important for understanding Edwards' approach to his message: 1) corrupt sinners face a fearful judgment; 2) time is short for the unrepentant; and 3) it is only God’s free choice that extends the day of mercy and provides an opportunity to respond to his call. Edwards’ sermon provides a fascinating look into the theology of the Great Awakening in colonial America.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
On October 24, 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, the United Nations was established as an intergovernmental organization with the purpose of saving future generations from the devastation of international conflict.
The Charter of the United Nations established six principal bodies, including the General Assembly, the Security Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
The UN Charter empowered ECOSOC to establish “commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of human rights…”. One of these commissions was the United Nations Human Rights Commission, which under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt saw to the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Formally adopted by the United Nations on December 10, 1948, the Declaration was drafted by representatives of all regions of the world and encompassed all legal traditions.
Today, the Declaration is a living document that has been accepted as a contract between a government and its people throughout the world. It is the most comprehensive human rights document in existence, delineating the thirty fundamental rights that form the basis for a democratic society.
According to the Guinness Book of World Records, it is the most translated document in the world.
Federal register
The Federal Register (the daily newspaper of the Federal government) is a legal newspaper published every business day by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). The Federal Register contains:
Federal Agency Regulations
Proposed Rules and Public Notices
Executive Orders
Proclamations
Other Presidential Documents
NARA's Office of the Federal Register prepares the Federal Register for publication and distribution in paper, on microfiche, and on the World Wide Web. Informing citizens of their rights and obligations and providing access to a wide range of federal benefits and opportunities for funding, each issue of the Federal Register is organized into four categories:
Presidential Documents, including executive orders and proclamations
Rules and Regulations, including policy statements and interpretations of rules
Proposed Rules, including petitions for rulemaking and other advance proposals
Notices, including scheduled hearings and meetings open to the public, grant applications, and administrative orders
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was the first written constitution of the United States. Stemming from wartime urgency, its progress was slowed by fears of central authority and extensive land claims by states before was it was ratified on March 1, 1781. Under these articles, the states remained sovereign and independent, with Congress serving as the last resort on appeal of disputes. Congress was also given the authority to make treaties and alliances, maintain armed forces and coin money. However, the central government lacked the ability to levy taxes and regulate commerce, issues that led to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 for the creation of new federal laws.
The impetus for an effective central government lay in the need for foreign recognition and aid, and the growth of national feeling. Altogether six drafts of the Articles were prepared before Congress settled on a final version in 1777. Benjamin Franklin wrote the first and presented it to Congress in July 1775. It was never formally considered. Later in the year Silas Deane, a delegate from Connecticut, offered one of his own, which was followed still later by a draft from the Connecticut delegation, probably a revision of Deane’s.
None of these drafts contributed significantly to the fourth version written by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, the text that after much revision provided the basis for the Articles approved by Congress. Dickinson prepared his draft in June 1776; it was revised by a committee of Congress and discussed in late July and August. The result, the third version of Dickinson’s original, was printed to enable Congress to consider it further. In November 1777 the final Articles, much altered by this long deliberative process, were approved for submission to the states.
The Noble Quran - القرآن الكريم
The Holy Quran is a compilation of the verbal revelations given to the Holy Prophet Muhammad by Allah over a period of twenty three years. The Holy Quran is the Holy Book or the Scriptures of the Muslims. It lays down for them the law and commandments, codes for their social and moral behavior, and contains a comprehensive religious philosophy. The language of the Quran is Arabic.
The Holy Quran is divided into 114 Surahs or chapters with each chapter consisting of individual Ayaat or verses. There are in total 6,348 verses in the Holy Quran. The Surahs are of varying lengths, some consisting of a few lines while others run for many pages.
The text of the Holy Quran has remained unchanged over the past 1400 years. The millions of copies of the Quran circulating in the world today are all identical down to a single letter. This is not strange since Allah says in the Holy Quran that He Himself will guard this book:
"Surely it is we who have revealed the Exposition, and surely it is we who are its guardians."
Treaty of Versailles 1919
The Peace Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 by Germany and the allied powers at the Palace of Versailles, ending World War I. A sizeable document, the treaty featured some 440 articles, with the addition of numerous annexes. Completed in April after several months of hard bargaining, it was presented to Germany for consideration on 7 May 1919.
The German government was given three weeks to accept the terms of the treaty (which it had not seen prior to delivery). Its initial response was a lengthy list of complaints, most of which were simply ignored. The treaty was perceived by many as adopted from U.S. President Wilson's Fourteen Points and by the British as too harsh in its treatment of Germany. Controversial even today, it is often argued that the punitive terms of the treaty supported the rise of the Nazis and the Third Reich in 1930s Germany, which in turn led to the outbreak of World War II.
the epic of gilgamesh
Gilgamesh is the best known of all ancient Mesopotamian heroes. Numerous tales in the Akkadian language have been told about Gilgamesh, and the whole collection has been described as an odyssey—the odyssey of a king who did not want to die.
The fullest extant text of the Gilgamesh epic is on 12 incomplete Akkadian-language tablets found at Nineveh in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (reigned 668–627 BC). The gaps that occur in the tablets have been partly filled by various fragments found elsewhere in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. In addition, five short poems in the Sumerian language are known from tablets that were written during the first half of the 2nd millennium BC; the poems have been titled “Gilgamesh and Huwawa,” “Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven,” “Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish,” “Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld,” and “The Death of Gilgamesh.”
The Gilgamesh of the poems and of the epic tablets was probably the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk in southern Mesopotamia sometime during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC and was a contemporary of Agga, ruler of Kish; Gilgamesh of Uruk was also mentioned in the Sumerian list of kings as reigning after the Flood. There is, however, no historical evidence for the exploits narrated in the poems and epic.
code of hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi is the most complete and perfectly extant collection of Babylonian laws, developed during the reign of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC) of the 1st dynasty of Babylon. It consists of his legal decisions that were collected toward the end of his reign and inscribed on a diorite stela set up in Babylon’s Temple of Marduk, the national god of Babylonia. These 282 case laws include economic provisions (prices, tariffs, trade, and commerce), family law (marriage and divorce), as well as criminal law (assault, theft) and civil law (slavery, debt). Penalties varied according to the status of the offenders and the circumstances of the offenses.
The background of the code is a body of Sumerian law under which civilized communities had lived for many centuries. The existing text is in the Akkadian (Semitic) language, but, even though no Sumerian version is known to survive, the code was meant to be applied to a wider realm than any single country and to integrate Semitic and Sumerian traditions and peoples. Moreover, despite a few primitive survivals relating to family solidarity, district responsibility, trial by ordeal, and the lex talionis (i.e., an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), the code was advanced far beyond tribal custom and recognized no blood feud, private retribution, or marriage by capture.
The primary source of the Code of Hammurabi is the stela discovered at Susa in 1901 by the French Orientalist Jean-Vincent Scheil and now preserved in the Louvre.